Positional designations
It's special letter indices elements, their groups, blocks, devices, identifying them on the diagram. In order to unambiguously point to a particular element, these designations are made unique within the schema.
These indices in most cases look like: R1, DA7, HL5, where the letter (letters) indicate the category of the designated (R - resistor, DA - analog microcircuit, etc.), and the numbers - the number in the circuit in order (for example, R1 , R2, R3 ... - resistors in the diagram).
Hierarchical designations are also widely used, consisting of several groups of letters and numbers, sometimes separated by other signs:
DD2.1 - digital microcircuit number 2, element 1 (according to GOST);
A2C7 - block (for example, board) number 2, capacitor 7 (also according to GOST);
U2A - chip 2, element A (predominantly American designations).
Positional designations within are regulated by GOST 2.710-81 pdf
In short, the reference designation in ESKD consists of the following parts:
Device designations (of the form =NANA);
functional group designations (type #NANA);
constructive designation (of the form + NANA), the above elements are separated from the subsequent ones by a dash (-);
type and number of element (type AN; A - type, N - number);
functions (type A);
contact designations (type: NANA);
address designation (in brackets).
Of which only the type and element number are mandatory.
Letters or sequences of letters are used as designations for element types, in which the first (or only) letter is the class of the device, and the rest specify the functional or constructive group. Qualifying letters may be omitted (for example, digital circuits may be referred to as Dn instead of DAn).
A Device (general designation)
AA Current Regulator
AK Relay Box
B Converters of non-electrical quantities into electrical quantities (kr. generators and power supplies) or vice versa, analog or multi-digit converters and sensors for indicating and measuring
BA Loudspeaker
BB Magnetostrictive element
BD Ionizing Radiation Detector
BE selsyn receiver
BF Phone (capsule)
BC selsyn sensor
BK Thermal sensor
BL Photocell
BM Microphone
BP pressure sensor
BQ Piezo element
BR Speed sensor (tachogenerator)
BS Pickup
BV Speed sensor
C Capacitors
CB Power capacitor bank
CG Charging Capacitor Unit
D Integrated circuits, microassemblies
DA Integrated analog circuit
DD Digital integrated circuit
DS Storage Devices
DT delay device
E Elements are different
EK heating element
EL Lighting lamp
ET Igniter
F Surge arresters, fuses, safety devices
FA Discrete instantaneous current protection element
FP Discrete current protection element of inertial action
FU fuse
FV Discrete voltage protection element, surge arrester
G Generators, power supplies
GB Battery
GC Synchronous Compensator
GE Generator Exciter
H Indicator and signaling devices
HA Sounder
HG Symbol indicator
HL Indicator light
HLA Signal board
HLG signal lamp green
HLR Signal lamp red
HLW Signal lamp white
HV Ionic and semiconductor indicators
K Relays, contactors, starters
KA current relay
KCC Close command relay
KCT Trip command relay
KH Indicating relay
KK Electrothermal relay
KL Intermediate relay
KM Contactor, magnetic starter
KT Timing relay
KV voltage relay
L Inductors, chokes
LL EL choke
LM Motor field winding
M Engines
MA Electric motors
P Instruments, measuring equipment
PA Ammeter
PC Pulse counter
PE Not allowed
PF frequency counter
PI Active energy meter
PK Reactive Energy Meter
PR Ohmmeter
PS Recording device
PT Clock, action time meter
PV Voltmeter
PW Wattmeter
Q Switches and disconnectors in power circuits
QF circuit breaker
QK short circuit
QS Disconnector
R Resistors
RK Thermistor
RP Potentiometer
RR Rheostat
RS Measuring shunt
EN Varistor
S Switching devices in control, signaling and measuring circuits
SA Breaker or switch
SB Pushbutton switch
SF Pushbutton switch (for devices without power circuit contacts)
SL Level switch
SP - against pressure
SQ - from the position (track)
SR - from rotational speed
SK - from temperature
T Transformers, autotransformers
TA current transformer
TS Electromagnetic Stabilizer
TV voltage transformer
U Communication devices, electrical-to-electrical converters
UB Modulator
UF frequency converter
UG Power supply
UI Discriminator
UR Demodulator
UZ Frequency converter, inverter, frequency generator, rectifier
V Electrovacuum and semiconductor devices
VD Diode, zener diode
VL Electrovacuum device
VT Transistor
VS Thyristor
W Microwave lines and elements, antennas
WA Antenna
WE Coupler
WK short circuit
WS Valve
WT Transformer, discontinuity, phase shifter
WU Attenuator
X Contact connections
XA Current collector, sliding contact
XP Pin
XS socket
XT Demountable connection
XW High frequency connector
Y Mechanical devices with electromagnetic drive
YA Electromagnet
YAB Electromagnetic lock
YB Brake with electromagnetic drive
YC Coupling with electromagnetic drive
YH Electromagnetic chuck or plate
Z Terminal devices, limiters, filters
ZL Limiter
ZQ Quartz filter
Foreign designations (Reference designators)
Unlike domestic, foreign designations have many letter designations types are different.
Here is a list of common foreign designations.
AE Antenna
AT Attenuator
BR Bridge rectifier
B, BT Battery
C Capacitor
CN Capacitor assembly
CRT Kinescope
D, CR Diode (Including zener diodes, thyristors and LEDs)
DL delay line
DS Display
DSP Digital Signal Processor
F Fuse
FB or FEB Ferrite ring (for RFI filtering)
FD Fiducial
FET FET
GDT Discharge lamp
IC Chip (also U)
J socket
J, JP Jumper (jumper)
JFET Unijunction FET
K Relay
L Inductance
LCD LCD display
LDR Photoresistor
LED
LS Loudspeaker, sound emitters (tweeters)
M Motor
MCB Breaker
MK, Mic Microphone
MOSFET MOSFET
MP Mechanical parts (fasteners, etc.)
Neon lamp
OP Operational amplifier
P Plug
PCB
PS Power supply
PU Pickup
Q Transistor (all kinds, also Tr)
R Resistor
RLA, RY Relay (also K)
RN Resistor Assembly
RT Thermistor (also TH)
RV Varistor
S Switching devices
SCR Thyristor
SW Switch
T Transformer
TC Thermocouple
TUN Tuner
TFT TFT display
TH Thermistor (also RT)
TP Test point
Tr Transistor (all types, also Q)
U Microcircuit (also IC)
V radio tube
VC variable capacitor
VFD Discharge Display
VLSI very large scale integration
VR variable resistor
X Transducers not included in other categories
X Quartz, ceramic resonator (also Y)
XMER Transformer
XTAL Quartz resonator
Y Quartz, ceramic resonator (also X)
Z, ZD Zener diode
historical
Before the introduction of GOST in the USSR, Cyrillic symbols were also used (with the exception of R, C, L).
A antenna
B galvanic cell, accumulator, battery
VK switch
G generator
Gr loudspeaker
D semiconductor diode
dr choke
Sv pickup
L tube
M microphone
NL neon lamp
P switch
R relay
T transistor
tl head phone
Tr transformer
TC thermistor
PV photocell
R resistor
C capacitor
L inductance
Those who have just started studying electronics are faced with the question: “How to read circuit diagrams?” The ability to read circuit diagrams is necessary for self-assembly of an electronic device and not only. What is a principle diagram? A circuit diagram is a graphical representation of a collection of electronic components connected by current-carrying conductors. The development of any electronic device begins with the development of its circuit diagram.
Exactly on circuit diagram it shows exactly how to connect the radio components in order to eventually get a finished electronic device that is capable of performing certain functions. To understand what is shown on the circuit diagram, you first need to know the symbol of those elements that make up the electronic circuit. Any radio component has its own conventional graphic designation - UGO . It usually displays constructive device or appointment. So, for example, the conditional graphic designation of the speaker very accurately conveys the real device of the speaker. This is how the speaker is indicated on the diagram.
Agree, very similar. This is what the resistor symbol looks like.
The usual rectangle, inside which its power can be indicated (V this case 2 W resistor, as evidenced by two vertical bars). But in this way a conventional capacitor of a constant capacity is indicated.
These are fairly simple items. But semiconductor electronic components, such as transistors, microcircuits, triacs, have a much more sophisticated image. So, for example, any bipolar transistor has at least three terminals: base, collector, emitter. On the conditional image of a bipolar transistor, these conclusions are shown in a special way. To distinguish a resistor from a transistor in a circuit, firstly, you need to know the conditional image of this element and, preferably, its basic properties and characteristics. Since each radio component is unique, certain information can be graphically encrypted in a conditional image. So, for example, it is known that bipolar transistors can have a different structure: p-n-p or n-p-n. Therefore, the UGO of transistors of different structures are somewhat different. Take a look...
Therefore, before you begin to understand the circuit diagrams, it is advisable to get acquainted with the radio components and their properties. So it will be easier to figure out what is still shown in the diagram.
On our site, it has already been told about many radio components and their properties, as well as their symbol on the diagram. If you forgot - welcome to the "Start" section.
In addition to conditional images of radio components, other clarifying information is also indicated on the schematic diagram. If you look closely at the diagram, you will notice that next to each conditional image of the radio component there are several Latin letters, for example, VT , BA , C etc. This is the abbreviated letter designation of the radio component. This was done so that when describing the work or setting up the scheme, one could refer to one or another element. It is not difficult to notice that they are also numbered, for example, like this: VT1, C2, R33, etc.
It is clear that there can be an arbitrarily large number of radio components of the same type in the circuit. Therefore, in order to arrange all this, numbering is used. The numbering of parts of the same type, such as resistors, is carried out on circuit diagrams according to the “AND” rule. This is, of course, only an analogy, but quite descriptive. Take a look at any diagram, and you will see that the same type of radio components on it are numbered starting from the upper left corner, then in order the numbering goes down, and then again the numbering starts from the top, and then down, and so on. Now remember how you write the letter "I". I think this is clear.
What else to tell about the concept? And here's what. On the diagram, next to each radio component, its main parameters or rating are indicated. Sometimes this information is placed in a table to make the circuit diagram easier to understand. For example, next to the image of a capacitor, as a rule, its nominal capacitance is indicated in microfarads or picofarads. The rated operating voltage may also be indicated, if this is important.
Next to the UGO of the transistor, the type rating of the transistor is usually indicated, for example, KT3107, KT315, TIP120, etc. In general, for any semiconductor electronic components such as microcircuits, diodes, zener diodes, transistors, the rating of the component that is supposed to be used in the circuit is indicated.
For resistors, usually only its nominal resistance is indicated in kiloohms, ohms or megaohms. The rated power of the resistor is encrypted with slashes inside the rectangle. Also, the power of the resistor on the diagram and on its image may not be indicated. This means that the power of the resistor can be any, even the smallest, since the operating currents in the circuit are insignificant and even the smallest resistor produced by the industry can withstand them.
Here is the simplest circuit of a two-stage amplifier audio frequency. The diagram shows several elements: a battery (or just a battery) GB1 ; fixed resistors R1 , R2 , R3 , R4 ; power switch SA1 , electrolytic capacitors C1 , C2 ; fixed capacitor C3 ; high impedance speaker BA1 ; bipolar transistors VT1 , VT2 structures n-p-n. As you can see, with the help of Latin letters, I refer to a specific element in the scheme.
What can we learn by looking at this diagram?
Any electronics runs on electric current, therefore, the circuit must indicate the current source from which the circuit is powered. The source of current can be a battery and an AC power supply or a power supply.
So. Since the amplifier circuit is battery powered direct current GB1, then, therefore, the battery has a polarity: plus "+" and minus "-". On the conditional image of the battery, we see that the polarity is indicated next to its terminals.
Polarity. It is worth mentioning separately. So, for example, electrolytic capacitors C1 and C2 have polarity. If we take a real electrolytic capacitor, then on its case it is indicated which of its conclusions is positive and which is negative. And now, the most important thing. When self-assembling electronic devices, it is necessary to observe the polarity of connecting electronic parts in the circuit. Failure to do so simple rule will lead to the inoperability of the device and, possibly, other undesirable consequences. Therefore, do not be lazy from time to time to look at the circuit diagram by which you assemble the device.
The diagram shows that to assemble the amplifier, you will need fixed resistors R1 - R4 with a power of at least 0.125 watts. This can be seen from their convention.
It can also be seen that the resistors R2* And R4* marked with an asterisk * . This means that the nominal resistance of these resistors must be selected in order to establish optimal operation of the transistor. Usually in such cases, instead of resistors, the value of which must be selected, a variable resistor with a resistance slightly larger than the value of the resistor indicated in the diagram is temporarily placed. To determine the optimal operation of the transistor in this case, a milliammeter is connected to the collector circuit break. The place on the diagram where you need to connect the ammeter is indicated on the diagram like this. The current is also indicated, which corresponds to the optimal operation of the transistor.
Recall that to measure the current, the ammeter is included in the open circuit.
Next, turn on the amplifier circuit with switch SA1 and begin to change the resistance with a variable resistor R2*. At the same time, the ammeter readings are monitored and the milliammeter shows a current of 0.4 - 0.6 milliamps (mA). On this, the setting of the transistor VT1 mode is considered complete. Instead of the variable resistor R2 *, which we installed in the circuit for the time of adjustment, a resistor with such a nominal resistance is placed, which is equal to the resistance of the variable resistor obtained as a result of adjustment.
What is the conclusion of all this long story about making the scheme work? And the conclusion is that if on the diagram you see any radio component with an asterisk (for example, R5*), this means that in the process of assembling the device according to this circuit diagram, it will be necessary to establish the operation of certain sections of the circuit. How to set up the operation of the device, as a rule, is mentioned in the description of the circuit diagram itself.
If you look at the amplifier circuit, you can also notice that there is such a symbol on it.
This designation indicates the so-called common wire. In the technical documentation, it is called the body. As you can see, the common wire in the shown amplifier circuit is the wire that is connected to the negative "-" terminal of the GB1 power battery. For other circuits, the common wire may also be the wire that is connected to the plus of the power source. In circuits with bipolar power, the common wire is indicated separately and is not connected to either the positive or negative output of the power source.
Why is "common wire" or "housing" indicated on the diagram?
With respect to the common wire, all measurements in the circuit are carried out, with the exception of those that are negotiated separately, and peripheral devices are also connected relative to it. The common wire carries a common current consumed by all elements of the circuit.
The common wire of a circuit is in reality often connected to the metal case of an electronic device or a metal chassis on which printed circuit boards are mounted.
It should be understood that the common wire is not the same as the "ground". " Earth"- this is grounding, that is, an artificial connection to the ground through a grounding device. It is indicated on the diagrams as follows.
IN individual cases the common wire of the device is connected to ground.
As already mentioned, all radio components in the circuit diagram are connected using current-carrying conductors. The current conductor can be copper wire or a track of copper foil on a printed circuit board. The current-carrying conductor in the circuit diagram is indicated by a regular line. Like this.
The places of soldering (electrical connection) of these conductors with each other, or with the conclusions of the radio components, are depicted with a bold dot. Like this.
It should be understood that in the circuit diagram, only the connection of three or more conductors or conclusions is indicated by a dot. If the diagram shows the connection of two conductors, for example, the output of a radio component and a conductor, then the circuit would be overloaded with unnecessary images and at the same time its informativeness and conciseness would be lost. Therefore, it is worth understanding that in a real circuit there may be electrical connections that are not indicated on the circuit diagram.
In the next part, we will talk about connections and connectors, repeating and mechanically connected elements, shielded parts and conductors. Click " Further"...
All radio engineering devices are literally crammed with a mass of radio components. To understand the contents of the boards, you need to understand the types and purpose of the parts. Radio elements are arranged in a certain order. Connected by tracks on the board, they are an electronic device that ensures the operation of radio equipment for various purposes. There is an international designation of radio components on the diagram and their name.
The systematization of electronic components is necessary so that the radio engineer, electronic engineer can freely navigate in the selection of radio components for the creation and repair of circuit boards for radio engineering devices. The classification of names and types of radio components is carried out in three directions:
The abbreviation of three letters VAC stands for current-voltage characteristic. CVC reflects the dependence of the current on the voltage flowing in any radio component. The characteristics look like graphs, where the current values are plotted along the ordinate, and the voltage value is noted along the abscissa. According to the shape of the graph, radio components are divided into passive and active elements.
Radio components whose characteristics look like a straight line are called linear or passive radio elements. Passive parts include:
to elements with non-linear characteristic relate:
The characteristics expressed on the graphs by a curved function refer to non-linear radio elements.
According to the method of installation, they are divided into three categories:
According to their purpose, radioelements can be divided into several groups:
By functionality radio components are divided into the following components.
Resistance is needed to limit the current strength in electrical circuits, it also creates a voltage drop in a separate section of the electrical circuit.
The resistor is characterized by three parameters:
This value is indicated in Ohms and its derivatives. The resistance value for radio resistors is in the range from 0.001 to 0.1 ohms.
If the current exceeds the nominal value for a certain resistor, then it may burn out. In the case of a current flowing with a force of 0.1 A through the resistance, its received power must be at least 1 W. If you put a part with a power of 0.5 W, then it will quickly fail.
The resistance tolerance value is assigned to the resistor by the manufacturer. The production technology does not allow achieving absolute accuracy of the resistance value. Therefore, resistors have tolerances for parameter deviation in one direction or another.
For household appliances, the tolerance can be from - 20% to + 20%. For example, a 1 ohm resistor could actually be 0.8 or 1.2 ohm. For high-precision systems used in the military and medical fields, the tolerance is 0.1-0.01%.
In addition to the usual resistances installed on the boards, there are resistors such as:
A good example of a variable resistance is the sound volume control in any household radio equipment. Inside the case there is a graphite disk along which the current puller moves. The position of the puller controls the amount of resistance in the area of the disk through which the current passes. Due to this, the resistance in the circuit changes, and the volume level changes.
In computers and similar equipment, resistors are installed on SMD boards. Chips are made using film technology. The resistance parameter depends on the thickness of the resistive film. Therefore, products are divided into two types: thick-film and thin-film.
The radio element accumulates an electric charge, separating the AC and DC components of the current, filtering the pulsating flow of electrical energy. A capacitor consists of two conductive plates with a dielectric between them. As a gasket, air, cardboard, ceramics, mica, etc. are used.
The characteristics of the radio component are:
The capacitance of capacitors is expressed in microfarads. The capacitance value in these units is usually displayed as a number on the body of the part.
The designation of the voltage of radio components gives an idea of the voltage at which the capacitor can perform its functions. If the allowable value is exceeded, the part will be pierced. A damaged capacitor will become a simple conductor.
Permissible voltage fluctuation reaches 20-30% of the nominal value. This approval is allowed for the use of radio components in household equipment. In high-precision devices, the allowable voltage change is within no more than 1%.
The elements of acoustics include speakers of various configurations. They are all united by a single principle of structure. The purpose of loudspeakers is to convert changes in the frequency of electric current into sound vibrations in the air.
Interesting. Dynamic heads of direct radiation are built into radio engineering devices in all spheres of human activity.
The main parameters of acoustics are as follows.
The value of electrical resistance can be determined by measuring the digital multimeter on the voice coil of the speaker. It is a simple inductor. Most audio acoustic devices have a resistance ranging from 2 to 8 ohms.
Human hearing is sensitive to sound vibrations ranging from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. One acoustic device cannot reproduce this entire range of audio frequencies. Therefore, for perfect sound reproduction, speakers are made in three types: low-frequency, medium and high-frequency speakers.
Attention! Different-frequency sound heads are combined into a single acoustic system (speakers). Each of the speakers reproduces sounds in its own range, in total, the perfect sound is obtained.
The amount of power of each particular speaker is indicated on its back in Watts. If an electrical impulse exceeding the rated power of the device is applied to the dynamic head, the speaker will begin to distort the sound and will soon fail.
The revolution in the production of radio receivers in the last century was made by diodes and transistors. They replaced bulky radio tubes. The radio component represents a locking device similar to a water tap. The radio element acts in one direction of electric current. Therefore, it is called a semiconductor.
The parameters characterizing the electric current include three indicators: resistance, voltage and current strength. More recently, bulky instruments such as an ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter were used to measure these quantities. But with the advent of the era of transistors and microcircuits, compact devices appeared - multimeters that can determine all three characteristics of the current.
Important! A radio amateur should have a multimeter in his arsenal. This universal device allows you to test radioelements, measure various characteristics passing current in all sections of the radio circuit.
For joining circuit nodes without soldering, apply different kinds connectors. Manufacturers of radio engineering use compact designs of contact connections.
Functionally, they perform the work of the same connectors. The difference is that the switching off and on of the electrical flow is carried out without violating the integrity of the electrical circuit.
It is important to understand the labeling of radio components. Information about its characteristics is applied to the body of the element. For example, the power of a resistor is indicated by numbers or color bars. It is very difficult to describe all the markings in one article. On the network, you can download a reference manual for labeling radioelements and their description.
The designation on the diagrams of radio elements looks like graphic figures. So, for example, a resistor is depicted as an elongated rectangle with the letter “R” next to it and a serial number. "R15" means that the resistor in the circuit is the 15th in a row. The value of the dissipated resistance power is immediately prescribed.
Particular attention should be paid to the designation on the microcircuits. For example, you can consider the KR155LAZ chip. The first letter "K" means a wide range of applications. If there is an "E", then this is an export version. The second letter "P" defines the material and type of body. In this case, it's plastic. The unit is the type of part, in the example it is a semiconductor chip. 55 is the serial number of the series. Subsequent letters express the logic of NAND.
You need to start by reading the schematic diagrams. For more effective learning, it is necessary to combine the study of theory with practice. It is necessary to understand all the symbols on the board. There is a lot of information on the Internet for this. It would be nice to have reference material on hand in book format. In parallel with the assimilation of the theory, you need to learn how to solder simple circuits.
Boards are used to connect radio components. To make contact tracks, a special solution is used to etch copper foil on the dielectric layer of the printed circuit board. Excess foil is removed, leaving only the desired tracks. The conclusions of the parts are soldered to their edges.
Additional Information. Lithium batteries, when heated by a soldering iron, can swell and collapse. To prevent this from happening, spot welding is used.
To decipher the letter designations of parts in the diagram, you need to use special tables approved by GOST. The first letter means the device, the second and third letters specify the specific type of radio component. For example, F means arrester or fuse. The full letters FV make it clear that this is a fuse.
The graphics of the schemes include a conventional two-dimensional designation of radio elements accepted all over the world. For example, a resistor is a rectangle, a transistor is a circle in which the lines show the direction of the current, a choke is a stretched spring, etc.
A novice radio amateur should have a table of images of radio components at hand. Below are examples of tables of graphic symbols for radio components.
For beginner radio amateurs, it is important to stock up on reference literature, where you can find information about the purpose of a particular radio component and its characteristics. How to make your own printed circuit boards and how to solder circuits correctly, you can learn from video tutorials on the net.
| Designation | Name | Photo | Description |
| grounding | Protective grounding - provides protection of people from electric shock in electrical installations. | ||
| A battery is a galvanic cell in which chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. | |||
| The solar battery is used to convert solar energy into electrical energy. | |||
| Voltmeter - a measuring device for determining voltage or EMF in electrical circuits. | |||
| Ammeter - a device for measuring current strength, the scale is graduated in microamperes or amperes. | |||
| Switch - a switching device designed to turn on and off individual circuits or electrical equipment. | |||
| The clock button is a switching mechanism that closes the electrical circuit while there is pressure on the pusher. | |||
| Incandescent lamps general purpose are designed for indoor and outdoor lighting. | |||
| Motor (engine) - a device that converts electricity into mechanical work (rotation). | |||
| Piezodynamics (piezo emitters) are used in technology to alert any incident or event. | |||
| Resistor - a passive element of electrical circuits with a certain value of electrical resistance. | |||
| A variable resistor is designed to smoothly change the current by changing its own resistance. | |||
| photoresistor | A photoresistor is a resistor whose electrical resistance changes under the influence of light rays (illumination). | ||
| Thermistor | Thermistors or thermistors are semiconductor resistors with a negative temperature coefficient of resistance. | ||
| Fuse - an electrical device designed to disconnect the protected circuit by destruction. | |||
| The capacitor serves to store the charge and energy of the electric field. The capacitor charges and discharges quickly. | |||
| The diode has different conductivity. The purpose of a diode is to conduct electricity in one direction. | |||
| Light-emitting diode (LED) - a semiconductor device that creates optical radiation when passing electricity. | |||
| A photodiode is an optical radiation receiver that converts light into an electrical charge due to a process in a p-n junction. | |||
| A thyristor is a semiconductor key, i.e. a device whose purpose is to close and open a circuit. | |||
| The purpose of the zener diode is to stabilize the voltage at the load, with a changing voltage in the external circuit. | |||
| A transistor is a semiconductor device designed to amplify and control an electric current. | |||
| A phototransistor is a semiconductor transistor that is sensitive to the light flux (illumination) that irradiates it. |
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In order to assemble a circuit, what kind of radio components are not needed: resistors (resistances), transistors, diodes, capacitors, etc. From the variety of radio components, one must be able to quickly distinguish the necessary one by appearance, decipher the inscription on its body, and determine the pinout. All of this will be discussed below.
This detail is practically found in every diagram of amateur radio designs. As a rule, the simplest capacitor is two metal plates (plates) and air between them as a dielectric. Instead of air, there may be porcelain, mica, or other non-conductive material. DC current does not pass through the capacitor, but alternating current passes through the capacitor. Due to this property, the capacitor is placed where it is necessary to separate the direct current from the alternating current.
For a capacitor, the main parameter is capacitance.
The unit of capacitance - microfarad (uF) is taken as a basis in amateur radio designs and in industrial equipment. But more often another unit is used - picofarad (pF), a millionth of a microfarad (1 μF \u003d 1,000 nF \u003d 1,000,000 pF). On the diagrams you will find both one and the other unit. Moreover, capacitance up to 9100 pF inclusive is indicated on the circuits in picofarads or nanofarads (9n1), and above - in microfarads. If, for example, “27”, “510” or “6800” is written next to the symbol of the capacitor, then the capacitance of the capacitor is respectively 27, 510, 6800 pF or n510 (0.51 nF = 510 pF or 6n8 = 6.8 nF = 6800pf). But the numbers 0.015, 0.25 or 1.0 indicate that the capacitance of the capacitor is the corresponding number of microfarads (0.015 microfarads \u003d 15 nF \u003d 15,000 pF).
Capacitors are of fixed and variable capacity.
For variable capacitors, the capacitance changes when the axis protruding outward is rotated. In this case, one overlay (movable) finds itself on a stationary one without touching it, as a result, the capacitance increases. In addition to these two types, our designs use another type of capacitor - trimmer. Usually it is installed in one or another device in order to more accurately select the desired capacitance during adjustment and not touch the capacitor anymore. In amateur designs, a tuning capacitor is often used as a variable - it is cheaper and more affordable.
Capacitors differ in the material between the plates and construction. There are air capacitors, mica, ceramic, etc. This kind of permanent capacitors is not polar. Another type of capacitors is electrolytic (polar). Such capacitors produce a large capacity - from a tenth of a microfarad to several tens of microfarads. The diagrams for them indicate not only the capacity, but also the maximum voltage for which they can be used. For example, the inscription 10.0 x 25 V means that a 10 microfarad capacitor must be taken for a voltage of 25 V.
For variable or trimmer capacitors, the diagram indicates the extreme capacitance values that are obtained if the axis of the capacitor is rotated from one extreme position to another or rotated around (as with trimmer capacitors). For example, the inscription 10 - 240 indicates that in one extreme position of the axis the capacitance of the capacitor is 10 pF, and in the other - 240 pF. With a smooth turn from one position to another, the capacitance of the capacitor will also change smoothly from 10 to 240 pF or vice versa - from 240 to 10 pF.
I must say that this part, like the capacitor, can be seen in many homemade products. It is a porcelain tube (or rod), on which the thinnest film of metal or soot (carbon) is deposited on the outside. On high-power low-ohm resistors, a nichrome thread is wound on top. A resistor has resistance and is used to set the desired current in an electrical circuit. Recall the tank example: by changing the diameter of the pipe (load resistance), you can get one or another water flow rate (electric current of various strengths). The thinner the film on the porcelain tube or rod, the greater the resistance to current.
Of the constants, resistors of the MLT type (metallized lacquered heat-resistant), VS (moisture-resistant resistance), ULM (lacquered carbon small-sized), of the variables - SP (variable resistance) and SPO (variable volume resistance) are most often used. The appearance of fixed resistors is shown in fig. below.
Resistors are distinguished by resistance and power. Resistance, as you already know, is measured in ohms (Ohm), kiloohms (kOhm) and megaohms (MΩ). Power is expressed in watts and this unit is denoted by the letters W. Resistors of different power differ in size. The greater the power of the resistor, the larger its size.
The resistance of the resistor is put down on the diagrams next to its symbol. If the resistance is less than 1 kOhm, the numbers indicate the number of ohms without a unit of measurement. With a resistance of 1 kOhm or more - up to 1 MΩ, indicate the number of kilo-ohms and put the letter "k" next to it. Resistance of 1 MΩ and above is expressed as a number of megaohms with the addition of the letter "M". For example, if 510 is written next to the resistor designation on the diagram, then the resistance of the resistor is 510 ohms. The designations 3.6 k and 820 k correspond to a resistance of 3.6 kOhm and 820 kOhm, respectively. The inscription on the diagram 1 M or 4.7 M means that resistances of 1 MΩ and 4.7 MΩ are used.
Unlike fixed resistors, which have two terminals, variable resistors have three such terminals. The diagram indicates the resistance between the extreme terminals of the variable resistor. The resistance between the middle terminal and the extreme ones changes with the rotation of the protruding axis of the resistor. Moreover, when the axis is turned in one direction, the resistance between the middle terminal and one of the extreme ones increases, respectively, decreasing between the middle terminal and the other extreme one. When the axis is turned back, the opposite happens. This property of a variable resistor is used, for example, to control the sound volume in amplifiers, receivers, televisions, etc.
They are made up of a whole group of parts: diodes, zener diodes, transistors. Each part uses a semiconductor material, or more simply a semiconductor. What it is? All existing substances can be divided into three large groups. Some of them - copper, iron, aluminum and other metals - conduct electric current well - they are conductors. Wood, porcelain, plastic do not conduct electricity at all. They are non-conductors, insulators (dielectrics). Semiconductors, on the other hand, occupy an intermediate position between conductors and dielectrics. Such materials conduct current only under certain conditions.
The diode (see figure below) has two terminals: the anode and the cathode. If you connect a battery to them with poles: plus - to the anode, minus - to the cathode, current will flow in the direction from the anode to the cathode. The resistance of the diode in this direction is small. If you try to change the poles of the batteries, that is, turn on the diode “vice versa”, then the current will not go through the diode. In this direction, the diode has a large resistance. If we pass an alternating current through the diode, then at the output we will get only one half-wave - it will be a pulsating, but direct current. If alternating current is applied to four diodes connected by a bridge, then we will already get two positive half-waves.
These semiconductor devices also have two terminals: an anode and a cathode. In the forward direction (from the anode to the cathode), the zener diode works like a diode, freely passing current. But in the opposite direction, at first it does not pass current (like a diode), but with an increase in the voltage applied to it, it suddenly “breaks through” and begins to pass current. The breakdown voltage is called the stabilization voltage. It will remain unchanged even with a significant increase in input voltage. Due to this property, the zener diode is used in all cases when it is necessary to obtain a stable supply voltage of a device during fluctuations, for example, mains voltage.
Of the semiconductor devices, the transistor (see figure below) is most often used in radio electronics. It has three outputs: base (b), emitter (e) and collector (k). The transistor is an amplifying device. It can be conditionally compared with such a device known to you as a horn. It is enough to say something in front of the narrow opening of the horn, directing the wide one towards a friend standing a few tens of meters away, and the voice, amplified by the horn, will be clearly heard in the distance. If we take a narrow hole as the input of the horn-amplifier, and a wide hole as the output, then we can say that the output signal is several times greater than the input. This is an indicator of the amplifying abilities of the horn, its gain.
Now the variety of radio components produced is very rich, so not all of their types are shown in the figures.
But back to the transistor. If a weak current is passed through the base-emitter section, it will be amplified by the transistor tens and even hundreds of times. Amplified current will flow through the collector-emitter section. If you ring the transistor base-emitter and base-collector with a multimeter, then it is similar to measuring two diodes. Depending on the highest current that can be passed through the collector, transistors are divided into low power, medium and high power. In addition, these semiconductor devices can be p-p-r structures or n-r-p. This is how transistors differ with different alternation of layers of semiconductor materials (if there are two layers of material in the diode, there are three of them). The gain of a transistor does not depend on its structure.
Literature: B. S. Ivanov, "ELECTRONIC HOMEMADE"
Popularity: 29 094 views
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This reference material provides appearance, name and marking of the main foreign radio components - microcircuits various types, connectors, quartz resonators, inductors and so on. The information is really useful, since many are well acquainted with domestic details, but not very well with imported ones, and in fact they are put in all modern schemes. A minimum knowledge of English is welcome, since all the inscriptions are not in Russian. For convenience, the details are grouped. Ignore the first letter in the description, example: f_Fuse_5_20Glass - means a 5x20 mm glass fuse.
As for the designation of all these radio elements on electrical circuit diagrams - see background information on this subject in another article.
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| AM | amplitude modulation |
| AHR | automatic frequency control |
| APCG | automatic adjustment of the local oscillator frequency |
| APCF | automatic frequency and phase adjustment |
| AGC | automatic adjustment amplification |
| ARYA | automatic brightness control |
| AC | acoustic system |
| AFU | antenna-feeder device |
| ADC | analog to digital converter |
| frequency response | frequency response |
| BGIMS | large hybrid integrated circuit |
| NOS | wireless remote control |
| BIS | large integrated circuit |
| biofeedback | signal processing unit |
| BP | power unit |
| BR | scanner |
| DBK | radio channel block |
| BS | information block |
| BTK | blocking transformer personnel |
| bts | line blocking transformer |
| BOO | Control block |
| BC | chroma block |
| BCI | integrated color block (with the use of microcircuits) |
| VD | video detector |
| VIM | time-pulse modulation |
| WU | video amplifier; input (output) device |
| HF | high frequency |
| G | heterodyne |
| GV | reproducing head |
| GHF | high frequency generator |
| GHF | hyperfrequency |
| GZ | start generator; recording head |
| GIR | heterodyne resonance indicator |
| GIS | hybrid integrated circuit |
| GKR | vertical scan generator |
| GKCh | swept frequency generator |
| GMV | meter wave generator |
| GPA | smooth range generator |
| GO | envelope generator |
| HS | signal generator |
| GSR | line scan generator |
| hss | standard signal generator |
| gg | clock generator |
| GU | universal head |
| VCO | voltage controlled generator |
| D | detector |
| dv | long waves |
| dd | fractional detector |
| days | voltage divider |
| dm | power divider |
| dmv | decimeter waves |
| DU | remote control |
| DShPF | dynamic noise reduction filter |
| EASC | unified automated network connections |
| ESKD | unified system of design documentation |
| zg | audio frequency generator; master oscillator |
| zs | retarding system; sound signal; pickup |
| ZCH | audio frequency |
| AND | integrator |
| ikm | pulse code modulation |
| ICU | quasi-peak level meter |
| ims | integrated circuit |
| ini | linear distortion meter |
| inch | infra-low frequency |
| and he | reference voltage source |
| un | power supply |
| ICH | frequency response meter |
| To | switch |
| KBV | traveling wave ratio |
| HF | short waves |
| kWh | extremely high frequency |
| kzv | recording-playback channel |
| KIM | pulse code modulation |
| kk | coils personnel deflecting system |
| km | coding matrix |
| knch | extremely low frequency |
| efficiency | efficiency |
| KS | line coils of the deflecting system |
| SWR | standing wave ratio |
| VSWR | voltage standing wave ratio |
| CT | check Point |
| KF | focusing coil |
| LBV | traveling wave lamp |
| lz | delay line |
| fishing | backward wave lamp |
| lpd | avalanche transit diode |
| lppt | tube-solid-state TV |
| m | modulator |
| MA | magnetic antenna |
| MB | meter waves |
| mdp | metal-insulator-semiconductor structure |
| MOS | metal-oxide-semiconductor structure |
| ms | chip |
| MU | microphone amplifier |
| neither | non-linear distortion |
| LF | low frequency |
| ABOUT | common base (turning on the transistor according to the common base circuit) |
| ovh | very high frequency |
| oi | common source (turning on the transistor *according to the common source circuit) |
| OK | common collector (turning on the transistor according to the common collector circuit) |
| onch | very low frequency |
| oos | negative feedback |
| OS | deflecting system |
| OU | operational amplifier |
| OE | common emitter (turning on the transistor according to the circuit with a common emitter) |
| surfactant | surface acoustic waves |
| pds | two-voice accompaniment prefix |
| remote control | remote control |
| pkn | code-voltage converter |
| pnk | voltage-to-code converter |
| mon | converter voltage frequency |
| pos | positive feedback |
| PPU | jamming device |
| pch | intermediate frequency; frequency converter |
| ptk | TV channel switch |
| pts | full TV signal |
| vocational school | industrial television installation |
| PU | preliminary effort^erіb |
| PUV | playback preamplifier |
| PUZ | recording preamplifier |
| PF | bandpass filter; piezo filter |
| ph | transfer characteristic |
| pcts | full color television signal |
| radar | line linearity regulator; radar station |
| RP | memory register |
| RPCG | manual adjustment of the local oscillator frequency |
| RRS | line size controller |
| PC | shift register; convergence controller |
| RF | notch or notch filter |
| CEA | electronic equipment |
| SCDU | wireless remote control system |
| VLSI | very large integrated circuit |
| SW | medium waves |
| svp | touch program selection |
| microwave | ultra high frequency |
| sg | signal generator |
| sdv | extra long waves |
| SDU | light-dynamic installation; remote control system |
| SC | channel selector |
| SLE | all-wave channel selector |
| sk-d | UHF channel selector |
| SK-M | VHF channel selector |
| CM | mixer |
| ench | ultra low frequency |
| joint venture | grid field signal |
| ss | sync signal |
| ssi | horizontal sync pulse |
| SU | selector-amplifier |
| mid | average frequency |
| TV | tropospheric radio waves; TV |
| TVS | line output transformer |
| tvz | audio output channel transformer |
| TVK | output personnel transformer |
| TIT | television test chart |
| TKE | capacitance temperature coefficient |
| tki | temperature coefficient of inductance |
| tcmp | temperature coefficient of initial magnetic permeability |
| tcns | temperature coefficient of stabilization voltage |
| tks | temperature coefficient of resistance |
| ts | network transformer |
| mall | television center |
| tcp | color bar chart |
| THAT | specifications |
| At | amplifier |
| HC | playback amplifier |
| UVS | video amplifier |
| UVH | sample-hold device |
| UHF | high frequency signal amplifier |
| UHF | UHF |
| UZ | recording amplifier |
| UZCH | audio signal amplifier |
| VHF | ultrashort waves |
| ULPT | unified tube semiconductor TV |
| ULLCT | unified tube semiconductor color TV |
| ULT | unified tube TV |
| UMZCH | audio power amplifier |
| UNT | unified tv |
| ULF | low frequency signal amplifier |
| UNU | voltage controlled amplifier. |
| UPT | DC amplifier; unified solid state TV |
| HRO | intermediate frequency amplifier |
| UPCHZ | intermediate frequency signal amplifier sound? |
| UPCHI | image IF signal amplifier |
| URCH | RF signal amplifier |
| US | interface device; comparison device |
| UHF | microwave signal amplifier |
| OSS | horizontal sync amplifier |
| USU | universal touch device |
| uu | control device (node) |
| UE | accelerating (control) electrode |
| UEIT | universal electronic test chart |
| PLL | phase locked loop |
| HPF | high pass filter |
| FD | phase detector; photodiode |
| FIM | phase-pulse modulation |
| FM | phase modulation |
| LPF | low pass filter |
| FHR | intermediate frequency filter |
| FHR | audio intermediate frequency filter |
| FPFI | image intermediate frequency filter |
| FSI | lumped selectivity filter |
| FSS | concentrated selection filter |
| FT | phototransistor |
| PFC | phase response |
| DAC | digital-to-analogue converter |
| digital computer | digital computer |
| CMU | color and music installation |
| DH | central television |
| BH | frequency detector |
| CHIM | pulse frequency modulation |
| world championship | frequency modulation |
| shim | pulse width modulation |
| shs | noise signal |
| ev | electron volt (e V) |
| COMPUTER. | electronic computer |
| emf | electromotive force |
| eq | electronic switch |
| CRT | cathode-ray tube |
| AMY | electronic musical instrument |
| emos | electromechanical feedback |
| EMF | electromechanical filter |
| EPU | electroplay device |
| ECVM | electronic digital computer |
www.radioelementy.ru
Radio components - the colloquial name for electronic components used for the manufacture of devices (devices) of digital and analog electronics.
The appearance of the name was influenced by the historical fact that at the beginning of the 20th century the first ubiquitous, and at the same time technically difficult for a non-specialist electronic device became radio. Initially, the term radio components meant electronic components used for the production of radio receivers; then the everyday, with some degree of irony, name spread to other radio-electronic components and devices that no longer have a direct connection with the radio.
Electronic components are divided, according to the method of action in the electrical circuit, into active and passive.
Basic elements found in almost all electronic circuits electronic equipment (REA) are:
Using electromagnetic induction
Based on electromagnets:
In addition, all kinds of connectors and disconnectors of the circuit are used to create the circuit - keys; for surge protection and short circuit- circuit breakers; for human perception of the signal - light bulbs and speakers (dynamic speaker head), for signal formation - a microphone and a video camera; to receive an analog signal transmitted over the air, the receiver needs an Antenna, and to work outside the electric current network, batteries are needed.
With the development of electronics, vacuum electronic devices appeared:
Subsequently, semiconductor devices became widespread:
and more complex complexes based on them - integrated circuits
Technologically, according to the method of installation, radio components can be divided into:
dic.academic.ru
In the article you will learn about what radio components exist. Designations on the diagram according to GOST will be considered. You need to start with the most common - resistors and capacitors.
To assemble any design, you need to know how the radio components look in reality, as well as how they are indicated on electrical diagrams. There are a lot of radio components - transistors, capacitors, resistors, diodes, etc.
Capacitors are parts that are found in any design without exception. Usually the simplest capacitors are two metal plates. And air acts as a dielectric component. I immediately remember the lessons of physics at school, when the topic of capacitors was covered. Two huge flat round pieces of iron acted as a model. They were brought closer to each other, then moved away. And measurements were taken in each position. It is worth noting that mica can be used instead of air, as well as any material that does not conduct electricity. The designation of radio components on imported circuit diagrams differs from the GOSTs adopted in our country.
Note that conventional capacitors do not carry direct current. On the other hand, alternating current passes through it without much difficulty. Given this property, a capacitor is installed only where it is necessary to separate the variable component in direct current. Therefore, we can make an equivalent circuit (according to Kirchhoff's theorem):
The main characteristic of a capacitor is its electrical capacitance. The unit of capacitance is Farad. She is very big. In practice, as a rule, capacitors are used, the capacitance of which is measured in microfarads, nanofarads, microfarads. In the diagrams, the capacitor is indicated in the form of two parallel dashes, from which there are taps.
There is also a type of device in which the capacitance changes (in this case due to the fact that there are movable plates). The capacitance depends on the size of the plate (in the formula S is its area), as well as on the distance between the electrodes. In a variable capacitor with an air dielectric, for example, due to the presence of a moving part, it is possible to quickly change the area. Therefore, the capacitance will also change. But the designation of radio components on foreign schemes is somewhat different. A resistor, for example, is depicted on them as a broken curve.
These elements have differences in design, as well as in the materials from which they are made. The most popular types of dielectrics can be distinguished:
But this applies only to non-polar elements. There are also electrolytic capacitors (polar). It is these elements that have very large capacitances - ranging from tenths of microfarads to several thousand. In addition to the capacitance, such elements have another parameter - the maximum voltage value at which its use is allowed. These parameters are written on the diagrams and on the capacitor cases.
It is worth noting that in the case of using trimmer or variable capacitors, two values \u200b\u200bare indicated - the minimum and maximum capacitance. In fact, on the case you can always find a certain range in which the capacitance changes if you turn the axis of the device from one extreme position to another.
Let's say we have a variable capacitor with a capacitance of 9-240 (default measurement in picofarads). This means that with a minimum overlap of the plates, the capacitance will be 9 pF. And at the maximum - 240 pF. It is worth considering in more detail the designation of radio components on the diagram and their name in order to be able to read the technical documentation correctly.
We can immediately distinguish three types (there are just so many) connections of elements:
And that's just general information about capacitors, in fact, you can talk a lot about them, cite entertaining experiments as an example.
These elements can also be found in any design - even in a radio receiver, even in a control circuit on a microcontroller. This is a porcelain tube, on which a thin film of metal (carbon, in particular, soot) is deposited on the outside. However, even graphite can be applied - the effect will be similar. If the resistors have very low resistance and high power, then nichrome wire is used as a conductive layer.
The main characteristic of a resistor is its resistance. Used in electrical circuits to set the required current value in certain circuits. At physics lessons, a comparison was made with a barrel filled with water: if you change the diameter of the pipe, you can adjust the speed of the jet. It should be noted that the resistance depends on the thickness of the conductive layer. The thinner this layer, the higher the resistance. In this case, the symbols of radio components in the diagrams do not depend on the size of the element.
As for such elements, the most common types can be distinguished:
Resistors have two main parameters - power and resistance. The last parameter is measured in ohms. But this unit of measurement is extremely small, so in practice you will often find elements whose resistance is measured in megaohms and kiloohms. Power is measured exclusively in watts. Moreover, the dimensions of the element depend on the power. The larger it is, the larger the element. And now about what is the designation of radio components. On the diagrams of imported and domestic devices, all elements can be designated differently.
On domestic circuits, a resistor is a small rectangle with an aspect ratio of 1: 3, its parameters are written either on the side (if the element is located vertically) or on top (in the case of a horizontal arrangement). First indicated latin letter R, then - the serial number of the resistor in the circuit.
Constant resistances have only two outputs. But there are three variables. On the electrical diagrams and on the body of the element, the resistance between the two extreme contacts is indicated. But between the middle and any of the extremes, the resistance will vary depending on the position in which the axis of the resistor is located. Moreover, if you connect two ohmmeters, you can see how the reading of one will change down, and the second - up. You need to understand how to read circuit diagrams of electronic devices. The designations of radio components will also not be superfluous to know.
The total resistance (between the extreme terminals) will remain unchanged. Variable resistors are used to control the gain (with their help you change the volume in radios, TVs). In addition, variable resistors are actively used in cars. These are fuel level sensors, electric motor speed controllers, lighting brightness.
In this case, the picture is completely opposite to that of the capacitors:
On this, you can close the review of resistors and begin to describe the most interesting elements - semiconductors (the designations of radio components in the diagrams, GOST for UGO, are discussed below).
This is the largest part of all radio elements, since semiconductors include not only zener diodes, transistors, diodes, but also varicaps, varicondas, thyristors, triacs, microcircuits, etc. Yes, microcircuits are one crystal that can contain a great variety of radio elements - and capacitors, and resistances, and p-p-junctions.
As you know, there are conductors (metals, for example), dielectrics (wood, plastic, fabrics). There may be different designations of radio components in the diagram (a triangle is most likely a diode or a zener diode). But it is worth noting that a triangle without additional elements denotes a logical ground in microprocessor technology.
These materials either conduct current or they don't, regardless of the state of aggregation they are in. But there are also semiconductors, the properties of which vary depending on specific conditions. These are materials such as silicon, germanium. By the way, glass can also be partly attributed to semiconductors - in its normal state it does not conduct current, but when heated, the picture is completely opposite.
A semiconductor diode has only two electrodes: a cathode (negative) and an anode (positive). But what are the features of this radio component? You can see the designations on the diagram above. So, you connect the power supply with a plus to the anode and a minus to the cathode. In this case, electric current will flow from one electrode to another. It is worth noting that the element in this case has extremely low resistance. Now you can conduct an experiment and connect the battery in reverse, then the current resistance increases several times, and it stops flowing. And if you direct an alternating current through the diode, you will get a constant output (though with small ripples). When using a bridge switching circuit, two half-waves (positive) are obtained.
Zener diodes, like diodes, have two electrodes - a cathode and an anode. IN direct connection this element works in exactly the same way as the diode discussed above. But if you start the current in the opposite direction, you can see a very interesting picture. Initially, the zener diode does not pass current through itself. But when the voltage reaches a certain value, a breakdown occurs, and the element conducts current. This is the stabilization voltage. A very good property, thanks to which it is possible to achieve a stable voltage in the circuits, to completely get rid of fluctuations, even the smallest ones. The designation of radio components on the diagrams is in the form of a triangle, and at its top there is a line perpendicular to the height.
If diodes and zener diodes can sometimes not even be found in designs, then you will find transistors in any (except for a detector receiver). Transistors have three electrodes:
Transistors can operate in several modes, but most often they are used in amplifying and key (like a switch). You can compare it with a mouthpiece - they shouted into the base, an amplified voice flew out of the collector. And hold on to the emitter with your hand - this is the case. The main characteristic of transistors is the gain (the ratio of the collector and base current). It is this parameter, along with many others, that is the main one for this radio component. The designations on the circuit for the transistor are a vertical line and two lines approaching it at an angle. There are several most common types of transistors:
There are also transistor assemblies, consisting of several amplifying elements. These are the most common radio components. The designations on the diagram were discussed in the article.
Beginning radio amateurs often face such a problem as the designation of radio components on diagrams and the correct reading of their markings. The main difficulty lies in the large number of items, which are represented by transistors, resistors, capacitors, diodes and other details. How correctly the diagram is read depends largely on its practical implementation and the normal operation of the finished product.
Resistors include radio components that have a strictly defined resistance to the electric current flowing through them. This function designed to reduce the current in the circuit. For example, to make the lamp shine less brightly, power is supplied to it through a resistor. The higher the resistance of the resistor, the less the lamp will glow. For fixed resistors, the resistance remains unchanged, and variable resistors can change their resistance from zero to the maximum possible value.
Each fixed resistor has two main parameters - power and resistance. The power value is indicated on the diagram not with alphabetic or numeric characters, but with the help of special lines. The power itself is determined by the formula: P \u003d U x I, that is, it is equal to the product of voltage and current. This parameter is important, since one or another resistor can only withstand certain value power. If this value is exceeded, the element will simply burn out, since heat is generated during the passage of current through the resistance. Therefore, in the figure, each line marked on the resistor corresponds to a certain power.
There are other ways to designate resistors in diagrams:
The name of fixed resistors is associated with their nominal resistance, which remains unchanged throughout the entire period of operation. They differ from each other depending on the design and materials.
Wire elements consist of metal wires. In some cases, high resistivity alloys may be used. The basis for winding the wire is a ceramic frame. These resistors have a high nominal value accuracy, and the presence of a large self-inductance is considered a serious drawback. In the manufacture of film metal resistors, a metal with a high resistivity is sprayed onto the ceramic base. Due to their qualities, such elements are most widely used.
The design of carbon fixed resistors can be film or bulk. In this case, the qualities of graphite are used as a material with high resistivity. There are other resistors, for example, integral ones. They are used in specific integrated circuits where the use of other elements is not possible.
Beginning radio amateurs often confuse a variable resistor with a variable capacitor, because outwardly they are very similar to each other. However, they have completely different functions, and there are also significant differences in the display on circuit diagrams.
The design of the variable resistor includes a slider that rotates along the resistive surface. Its main function is to adjust the parameters, which consists in changing the internal resistance to the desired value. This principle is based on the operation of the sound control in audio equipment and other similar devices. All adjustments are carried out by smoothly changing the voltage and current in electronic devices.
The main parameter of a variable resistor is resistance, which can vary within certain limits. In addition, it has an installed power that it must withstand. All types of resistors have these qualities.
On domestic circuit diagrams, elements of a variable type are indicated in the form of a rectangle, on which two main and one additional output are marked, located vertically or passing through the icon diagonally.
On foreign schemes, the rectangle is replaced by a curved line with the designation of an additional output. Next to the designation is placed English letter R with the ordinal number of one or another element. The value of the nominal resistance is put next to it.
In electronics and electrical engineering, resistor connections in various combinations and configurations are quite often used. For clarity, consider separate plot circuits with serial, parallel and.
With a series connection, the end of one resistor is connected to the beginning of the next element. Thus, all resistors are connected one after another, and a total current of the same value flows through them. There is only one path for current to flow between the start and end points. With an increase in the number of resistors connected in a common circuit, there is a corresponding increase in the total resistance.
Such a connection is considered parallel when the initial ends of all resistors are combined at one point, and the final outputs at another point. Current flows through each individual resistor. As a result of the parallel connection, as the number of connected resistors increases, the number of paths for current to flow also increases. The total resistance in such a section decreases in proportion to the number of connected resistors. It will always be less than the resistance of any resistor connected in parallel.
Most often in radio electronics, a mixed connection is used, which is a combination of parallel and series options.
In the presented circuit, resistors R2 and R3 are connected in parallel. The series connection includes resistor R1, a combination of R2 and R3, and resistor R4. In order to calculate the resistance of such a connection, the entire circuit is divided into several simple sections. After that, the resistance values are summed up and the overall result is obtained.
A standard semiconductor diode consists of two terminals and one rectifying electrical junction. All elements of the system are combined in a common body made of ceramic, glass, metal or plastic. One part of the crystal is called the emitter, due to the high concentration of impurities, and the other part, with a low concentration, is called the base. The marking of semiconductors on the diagrams reflects their design features and technical characteristics.
For the manufacture of semiconductors, germanium or silicon is used. In the first case, it is possible to achieve a higher transmission coefficient. Germanium elements are characterized by increased conductivity, for which even a low voltage is sufficient.
Depending on the design, semiconductors can be point or planar, and according to technological features, they can be rectifier, pulsed or universal.
The capacitor is a system that includes two or more electrodes made in the form of plates - linings. They are separated by a dielectric, which is much thinner than the capacitor plates. The whole device has mutual capacitance and has the ability to save electric charge. On the simplest scheme the capacitor is presented in the form of two parallel metal plates separated by some kind of dielectric material.
On the circuit diagram, next to the image of the capacitor, its nominal capacitance is indicated in microfarads (uF) or picofarads (pF). When designating electrolytic and high-voltage capacitors, after the nominal capacitance, the value of the maximum operating voltage, measured in volts (V) or kilovolts (kV), is indicated.
Capacitors with variable capacitance are denoted by two parallel segments, which are crossed by an inclined arrow. Movable plates connected at a certain point in the circuit are shown as a short arc. Next to it is the designation of the minimum and maximum capacity. A block of capacitors, consisting of several sections, is combined using a dashed line crossing the adjustment signs (arrows).
The designation of the trimmer capacitor includes an oblique line with a dash at the end instead of an arrow. The rotor is displayed as a short arc. Other elements - thermal capacitors are designated by the letters SK. In its graphical representation, a temperature symbol is affixed near the non-linear adjustment sign.
Graphic designations of capacitors with a constant capacitance are widely used. They are depicted as two parallel segments and conclusions from the middle of each of them. The letter C is placed next to the icon, after it is the serial number of the element and, with a small interval, the numerical designation of the nominal capacity.
When using a capacitor with in a circuit, an asterisk is applied instead of its serial number. The rated voltage value is indicated only for high voltage circuits. This applies to all capacitors, except for electrolytic ones. The digital symbol for voltage is placed after the designation of the capacitance.
The connection of many electrolytic capacitors requires polarity. In the diagrams, a “+” sign or a narrow rectangle is used to indicate a positive lining. In the absence of polarity, both plates are marked with narrow rectangles.
Diodes are among the simplest semiconductor devices that operate on the basis of an electron-hole junction, known as a p-n junction. The property of one-way conductivity is clearly conveyed in graphic symbols. A standard diode is depicted as a triangle symbolizing the anode. The vertex of the triangle indicates the direction of conduction and abuts against the transverse line denoting the cathode. The entire image is crossed in the center by an electric circuit line.
For the letter designation VD is used. It displays not only individual elements, but also entire groups, for example, . The type of a particular diode is indicated next to its reference designation.
The base symbol is also used to designate zener diodes, which are semiconductor diodes with special properties. There is a short stroke in the cathode directed towards the triangle symbolizing the anode. This stroke is located invariably, regardless of the position of the zener diode icon on the circuit diagram.
Most electronic components have only two pins. However, elements such as transistors are equipped with three terminals. Their designs come in a variety of types, shapes and sizes. General principles their work is the same, and small differences are associated with the technical characteristics of a particular element.
Transistors are primarily used as electronic switches to turn on and off various devices. The main convenience of such devices is the ability to switch high voltage using a low voltage source.
At its core, each transistor is a semiconductor device with the help of which electrical oscillations are generated, amplified and converted. The most widespread are bipolar transistors with the same electrical conductivity of the emitter and collector.
In the diagrams, they are indicated by the letter code VT. The graphic image is a short dash, from the middle of which a line departs. This symbol represents the base. Two inclined lines are drawn to its edges at an angle of 60 0, representing the emitter and collector.
The electrical conductivity of the base depends on the direction of the emitter needle. If it is directed towards the base, then the electrical conductivity of the emitter is p, and that of the base is n. When the arrow is directed in the opposite direction, the emitter and base change the electrical conductivity to the opposite value. Knowledge of electrical conductivity is necessary for correct connection transistor to the power supply.
In order to make the designation on the diagrams of the radio components of the transistor more visual, it is placed in a circle, meaning the case. In some cases, a metal case is connected to one of the terminals of the element. Such a place on the diagram is displayed as a dot, affixed where the output intersects with the body symbol. If there is a separate output on the case, then the line indicating the output can be connected to a circle without a dot. Near the positional designation of the transistor, its type is indicated, which can significantly increase the information content of the circuit.
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Basic designation |
Element name |
Additional designation |
Device type |
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Device |
current regulator |
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Relay box |
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Device |
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Converters |
Speaker |
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Thermal sensor |
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Photocell |
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Microphone |
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Pickup |
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Capacitors |
Power capacitor bank |
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Charging Capacitor Block |
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Integrated circuits, microassemblies |
IC analog |
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IC digital, logical element |
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Elements are different |
Thermal electric heater |
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Lighting lamp |
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Surge arresters, fuses, protective devices |
Discrete instantaneous current protection element |
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The same, for the current of inertial action |
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fuse |
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Discharger |
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Generators, power supplies |
Battery pack |
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Synchronous compensator |
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Generator exciter |
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Indicating and signaling devices |
Sound alarm device |
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Indicator |
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Light signaling device |
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Signal board |
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Signal lamp with green lens |
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Signal lamp with red lens |
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Signal lamp with white lens |
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Ionic and semiconductor indicators |
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Relays, contactors, starters |
Current relay |
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Relay index |
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Relay electrothermal |
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Contactor, magnetic starter |
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Time relay |
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Voltage relay |
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Close command relay |
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Trip command relay |
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Intermediate relay |
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Inductors, chokes |
Fluorescent lighting choke |
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Action time meter, hours |
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Voltmeter |
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Wattmeter |
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Power switches and disconnectors |
Automatic switch |
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Resistors |
Thermistor |
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Potentiometer |
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Measuring shunt |
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Varistor |
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Switching device in control, signaling and measuring circuits |
Breaker or switch |
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push button switch |
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Automatic switch |
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Autotransformers |
Current transformer |
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Voltage transformers |
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Converters |
Modulator |
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Demodulator |
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power unit |
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Frequency converter |
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Electrovacuum and semiconductor devices |
diode, zener diode |
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Electrovacuum device |
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Transistor |
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Thyristor |
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Contact connectors |
current collector |
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High frequency connector |
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Mechanical devices with electromagnetic drive |
Electromagnet |
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electromagnetic lock |
